Surgical Procedures Were Often First Studied On Which Animal?

1 of Pavlov's dogs with a saliva-catch container and tube surgically implanted in its muzzle, Pavlov Museum, 2005

The history of animal testing goes back to the writings of the Ancient Greeks in the 4th and third centuries BCE, with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and Erasistratus (304–258 BCE) i of the first documented to perform experiments on nonhuman animals.^[one] Galen, a md in 2nd-century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is known equally the "Male parent of Vivisection."^[2] Avenzoar, an Standard arabic medico in twelfth-century Moorish Spain who also practiced dissection, introduced brute testing as an experimental method of testing surgical procedures earlier applying them to human patients.^{[3] [4]} Although the verbal purpose of the process was unclear, a Neolithic surgeon performed trepanation on a cow in 3400-3000 BCE.^[5] This is the earliest known surgery to accept been performed on an animal, and information technology is possible that the procedure was done on a dead cow in order for the surgeon to do their skills.

History of beast testing [edit]

The mouse is a typical testing species.

In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis provided authentic descriptions of the circulation of blood in mammals. A complete description of this circulation was later provided in the 17th century by William Harvey.

In his unfinished 1627 utopian novel, New Atlantis, scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon proposed a inquiry center containing "parks and enclosures of all sorts of beasts and birds which we utilize ... for dissections and trials; that thereby we may take low-cal what may exist wrought upon the body of man."

In the 1660s, the physicist Robert Boyle conducted many experiments with a pump to investigate the effects of rarefied air. He listed two experiments on living nonhuman animals: "Experiment 40", which tested the ability of insects to fly under reduced air pressure, and the dramatic "Experiment 41," which demonstrated the reliance of living creatures on the air for their survival. Boyle conducted numerous trials during which he placed a big variety of unlike nonhuman animals, including birds, mice, eels, snails and flies, in the vessel of the pump and studied their reactions as the air was removed.^[6] Here, he describes an injured distraction:

…the Bird for a while appear'd lively plenty; merely upon a greater Exsuction of the Air, she began manifestly to droop and appear ill, and very shortly after was taken with as tearing and irregular Convulsions, as are wont to be observ'd in Poultry, when their heads are wrung off: For the Bird threw her cocky over and over two or iii times, and dyed with her Breast upward, her Head down, and her Neck awry.^[vii]

In the 18th century, Antoine Lavoisier decided to use a guinea squealer in a calorimeter considering he wanted to prove that respiration was a form of combustion. He had an impression that combustion and respiration are chemically identical. Lavoisier demonstrated this with the help of Pierre-Simon Laplace. They both carefully measured the amount of "carbon dioxide and rut given off by a republic of guinea grunter equally (they) breathed".^[eight] Then they contrasted this to "the amount of estrus produced when they burned carbon to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as had been exhaled by the guinea sus scrofa".^[8] Their conclusion made Lavoisier confident "that respiration is a grade of combustion".^[8] Also, the result showed that the estrus mammals produce through respiration allowed their bodies to exist above room temperature.

Stephen Hales measured claret pressure level in the horse. In the 1780s, Luigi Galvani demonstrated that electricity applied to a expressionless, dissected, frog's leg muscle caused information technology to twitch, which led to an appreciation for the relationship betwixt electricity and animation. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur convincingly demonstrated the germ theory of medicine past giving anthrax to sheep. In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to draw classical conditioning.

In 1921 Otto Loewi provided the offset substantial evidence that neuronal advice with target cells occurred via chemical synapses. He extracted two hearts from frogs and left them beating in an ionic bath. He stimulated the attached Vagus nerve of the beginning middle and observed its beating slowed. When the second heart was placed in the ionic bath of the offset, it also slowed.^[ix]

In the 1920s, Edgar Adrian formulated the theory of neural communication that the frequency of action potentials, and non the size of the activity potentials, was the basis for communicating the magnitude of the signal. His work was performed in an isolated frog nerve-muscle preparation. Adrian was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work.^[10]

In the 1960s David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel demonstrated the macro columnar system of visual areas in cats and monkeys, and provided physiological evidence for the critical menstruum for the development of disparity sensitivity in vision (i.e.: the master cue for depth perception), and were awarded a Nobel Prize for their piece of work.

In 1996 Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an developed jail cell.^[11] The procedure by which Dolly the sheep was cloned utilized a process known as nuclear transfer applied by lead scientist Ian Wilmut. Although other scientists were not immediately able to replicate the experiment, Wilmut argued that the experiment was indeed repeatable, given a timeframe of over a year.^[12]

In 1997, innovations in frogs, Xenopus laevis, by developmental biologist Jonathan Slack of the University of Bath, created headless tadpoles, which could allow future applications in donor organ transplantation.^[13]

At that place has been growing business most both the methodology and the intendance of animals in laboratories who are used in testing. In that location is increasing emphasis on more than humane and compassionate treatment of other animals.^[xiv] Methodological concerns include factors that make animal study results less reproducible than intended. For example, a 2014 study from McGill University in Montreal, Canada suggests that mice handled past men rather than women showed college stress levels.^{[15] [16] [17]}

In medicine [edit]

Early depictions of vivisection using pigs

In the 1880s and 1890s, Emil von Behring isolated the diphtheria toxin and demonstrated its effects in republic of guinea pigs. He went on to demonstrate immunity against diphtheria in other animals in 1898 by injecting a mix of toxin and antitoxin. This work constituted in role the rationale for awarding von Behring the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Roughly 15 years later, Behring announced such a mix suitable for human immunity which largely banished diphtheria from the scourges of humankind.^[18] The antitoxin is famously commemorated each yr in the Iditarod race, which is modeled after the Nome in the 1925 serum run to Nome. The success of the animal studies in producing the diphtheria antitoxin are attributed by some as a cause of the decline of the early 20th century antivivisectionist movement in the USA.^[19]

In 1921, Frederick Banting tied upwards the pancreatic ducts of dogs and discovered that the isolates of pancreatic secretion could be used to keep dogs with diabetes alive. He followed up these experiments with the chemic isolation of insulin in 1922 with John Macleod. These experiments used bovine sources instead of dogs to improve the supply. The offset person treated was Leonard Thompson, a fourteen-twelvemonth-erstwhile diabetic who simply weighed 65 pounds and was about to slip into a blackout and die. After the first dose, the formulation had to be re-worked, a process that took 12 days. The second dose was effective.^[twenty] These two won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 for their discovery of insulin and its handling of diabetes mellitus. Thompson lived thirteen more years taking insulin. Earlier insulin'due south clinical use, a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus meant death; Thompson had been diagnosed in 1919.^[21]

In 1943, Selman Waksman's laboratory discovered streptomycin using a serial of screens to observe antibacterial substances from the soil. Waksman coined the term antibiotic with regards to these substances. Waksman would win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1952 for his discoveries in antibiotics. Corwin Hinshaw and William Feldman took the streptomycin samples and cured tuberculosis in four guinea pigs with information technology. Hinshaw followed these studies with homo trials that provided a dramatic accelerate in the ability to stop and contrary the progression of tuberculosis.^{[22] [23]} Mortality from tuberculosis in the Britain has diminished from the early 20th century due to better hygiene and improved living standards, but from the moment antibiotics were introduced, the autumn became steep so that by the 1980s mortality in developed countries was finer zero.^[24]

In the 1940s, Jonas Salk used rhesus monkey cross-contagion studies to isolate the three forms of the polio virus that affected hundreds of thousands yearly.^[25] Salk's squad created a vaccine against the strains of polio in cell cultures of rhesus monkey kidney cells. The vaccine was fabricated publicly bachelor in 1955 and reduced the incidence of polio fifteen-fold in the U.s.a. over the post-obit five years.^[26] Albert Sabin made a superior "live" vaccine by passing the polio virus through animate being hosts, including monkeys. The vaccine was produced for mass consumption in 1963 and is still in use today. It had virtually eradicated polio in the US by 1965.^[27] It has been estimated that 100,000 rhesus monkeys were killed in the course of developing the polio vaccines, and 65 doses of vaccine were produced from each monkey. Writing in the Winston-Salem Periodical in 1992, Sabin said, "Without the use of nonhuman animals and human (animals), information technology would take been impossible to acquire the important knowledge needed to prevent much suffering and premature decease not only amidst humans but (other) animals equally well."^[28]

Also in the 1940s, John Cade tested lithium salts in republic of guinea pigs in a search for pharmaceuticals with anticonvulsant backdrop. The nonhuman animals seemed calmer in their mood. He then tested lithium on himself, before using information technology to treat recurrent mania.^[29] The introduction of lithium revolutionized the treatment of manic-depressives by the 1970s. Prior to Cade's beast testing, manic-depressives were treated with a lobotomy or electro-convulsive therapy.

In the 1950s the start safer, volatile anaesthetic halothane was developed through studies on rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats and monkeys.^[thirty] This paved the way for a whole new generation of modern general anaesthetics – as well developed by animal studies – without which modern, complex surgical operations would be virtually incommunicable.^[31]

In 1960, Albert Starr pioneered center valve replacement surgery in humans after a series of surgical advances in dogs.^[32] He received the Lasker Medical Award in 2007 for his efforts, along with Alain Carpentier. In 1968 Carpentier made eye valve replacements from the centre valves of pigs, which are pre-treated with glutaraldehyd to blunt immune response. Over 300,000 people receive heart valve replacements derived from Starr and Carpentier'due south designs annually. Carpentier said of Starr's initial advances "Before his prosthetic, patients with valvular disease would die."^[33]

In the 1970s, leprosy multi-drug antibody treatments were refined using leprosy leaner grown in armadillos and were and so tested in human clinical trials. Today, the ix-banded armadillo is still used to culture the bacteria that causes leprosy, for studies of the proteomics and genomics (the genome was completed in 1998) of the bacteria, for improving therapy and developing vaccines. Leprosy is still prevalent in Brazil, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, India, and Nepal, with over 400,000 cases at the commencement of 2004.^[34] The leaner has not yet been cultured in vitro with success necessary to develop drug treatments or vaccines, and mice and armadillos have been the sources of the bacteria for inquiry.^[35]

The non-man primate models of AIDS, using HIV-two, SHIV, and SIV in macaques, take been used as a complement to ongoing research efforts against the virus. The drug tenofovir has had its efficacy and toxicology evaluated in macaques and found long-term/high-dose treatments had adverse effects not found using brusk-term/high-dose treatment followed past long-term/depression-dose treatment. This finding in macaques was translated into man dosing regimens. Prophylactic treatment with anti-virals has been evaluated in macaques considering an introduction of the virus can only be controlled in an animal model. The finding that prophylaxis can exist effective at blocking infection has altered the treatment for occupational exposures, such equally needle exposures. Such exposures are now followed rapidly with anti-HIV drugs, and this practise has resulted in measurable transient virus infection like to the NHP model. Similarly, the mother-to-fetus transmission, and its fetal prophylaxis with antivirals such equally tenofovir and AZT, has been evaluated in controlled testing in macaques not possible in humans, and this knowledge has guided antiviral treatment in pregnant mothers with HIV. "The comparison and correlation of results obtained in monkey and human studies are leading to a growing validation and recognition of the relevance of the beast model. Although each animal model has its limitations, carefully designed drug studies in nonhuman primates can continue to accelerate our scientific knowledge and guide future clinical trials."^{[36] [37] [38]}

Throughout the 20th century, research that used live nonhuman animals has led to many other medical advances and treatments for human diseases, such as: organ transplant techniques and anti-transplant rejection medications,^{[39] [40] [41] [42]} the heart-lung machine,^[43] antibiotics like penicillin,^[44] and whooping cough vaccine.^[45]

Before long, creature experimentation continues to be used in inquiry that aims to solve medical bug including Alzheimer'south disease,^[46] multiple sclerosis^[47] spinal cord injury,^[48] and many more conditions in which in that location is no useful in vitro model arrangement bachelor.

Veterinary advances [edit]

A veterinary surgeon at piece of work with a cat

Animal testing for veterinary studies accounts for around five per centum of research using other animals. Treatments to each of the following animal diseases have been derived from brute studies: rabies,^[49] anthrax,^[49] glanders,^[49] Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV),^[50] tuberculosis,^[49] Texas cattle fever,^[49] Classical swine fever (squealer cholera),^[49] Heartworm and other parasitic infections.^[51]

Testing other animals for rabies do require the beast to be dead, and information technology takes 2 hours to conduct the examination.^[52]

Basic and practical research in veterinary medicine continues in varied topics, such equally searching for improved treatments and vaccines for feline leukemia virus and improving veterinarian oncology.

Early debate [edit]

The ethical implications of using animals for testing has been a heated debate in regards to the humane treatment that is used.

In 1655, physiologist Edmund O'Meara was recorded as saying that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the trunk in an unnatural state."^{[53] [54]} O'Meara thus expressed i of the chief scientific objections to vivisection: that the pain that the individual endured would interfere with the accuracy of the results.

In 1822, the first animal protection law was enacted in the British parliament, followed past the Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), the offset police force specifically aimed at regulating creature testing. The legislation was promoted by Charles Darwin, who wrote to Ray Lankester in March 1871:

Yous ask well-nigh my stance on vivisection. I quite concur that information technology is justifiable for existent investigations on physiology; but non for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. Information technology is a subject field which makes me sick with horror, so I will not say another discussion well-nigh information technology, else I shall not sleep to-night."^{[55] [56]}

Opposition to the use of nonhuman animals in medical research arose in the United states of america during the 1860s, when Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), with America'southward showtime specifically anti-vivisection system being the American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS), founded in 1883.

In the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, an article in the Medical Times and Gazette on April 28, 1877, indicates that anti-vivisectionist campaigners, mainly clergymen, had prepared a number of posters entitled, "This is vivisection," "This is a living dog," and "This is a living rabbit," depicting nonhuman animals in a poses that they said copied the work of Elias von Cyon in St. Petersburg, though the article says the images differ from the originals. Information technology states that no more than than ten or a dozen men were actively involved in beast testing on living nonhuman animals in the UK at that time.^[57]

Antivivisectionists of the era believed the spread of mercy was the bully crusade of civilization, and vivisection was cruel. Notwithstanding, in the U.S., the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in every legislature considering of the widespread support of an informed public for the conscientious and judicious apply of other animals. The early antivivisectionist motion in the U.S. dwindled greatly in the 1920s. Overall, this motility had no United states of america legislative success. The passing of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act, in 1999 was more than focused on protecting the welfare of other animals who are used in all fields, including inquiry, food production, consumer product development, etc.^{[58] [59]}

On the other side of the debate, those in favor of nonhuman-beast testing held that experiments on other animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge and to ensure the safety of products intended for homo and animal use. In 1831, the founders of the Dublin Zoo—the fourth oldest zoo in Europe, later Vienna, Paris, and London—were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the individuals both while they were alive and when they were dead.^[60] Claude Bernard, known as the "prince of vivisectors"^[61] and the father of physiology—whose wife, Marie Françoise Martin, founded the first anti-vivisection society in French republic in 1883^[62]—famously wrote in 1865 that "the scientific discipline of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached just by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen."^[63] Arguing that "experiments on (nonhuman) animals...are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man...the effects of these substances are the same on man as on (other) animals, save for differences in degree,"^[64] Bernard established animal experimentation every bit part of the standard scientific method.^[65] In 1896, the physiologist and doctor Dr. Walter B. Cannon said "The antivivisectionists are the second of the 2 types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without censor may atomic number 82 to criminal offence, but conscience without mutual sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden of crime.'"^[58] These divisions between pro- and anti- animal testing groups outset came to public attending during the dark-brown dog matter in the early 20th century, when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti-vivisectionists and police force over a memorial to a vivisected dog.^[66]

See also [edit]

• History of model organisms
• Creature testing
• Alarik Frithiof Holmgren

Notes [edit]

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4. ^ Abdel-Halim, Rabie Due east. (2006). "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology". Saudi Medical Journal. 27 (11): 161–1641. PMID 17106533.
5. ^ Ramirez Rozzi, Fernando; Froment, Alain (2018-04-19). "Earliest Animal Cranial Surgery: from Cow to Human in the Neolithic". Scientific Reports. eight (1): 5536. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.5536R. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-23914-1. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC5908843. PMID 29674628.
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47. ^ Jameson, BA; McDonnell, JM; Marini, JC; Korngold, R (1994). "A rationally designed CD4 analogue inhibits experimental allergic encephalomyelitis". Nature. 368 (6473): 744–half dozen. Bibcode:1994Natur.368..744J. doi:10.1038/368744a0. PMID 8152486. S2CID 4370797.
48. ^ Lyuksyutova, AL; Lu C-C, Milanesio N; Milanesio, N; King, LA; Guo, Northward; Wang, Y; Nathans, J; Tessier-Lavigne, M; et al. (2003). "Anterior-posterior guidance of commissural axons by Wnt-Frizzled signaling". Scientific discipline. 302 (5652): 1984–eight. Bibcode:2003Sci...302.1984L. doi:x.1126/science.1089610. PMID 14671310. S2CID 39309990.
49. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} A reference handbook of the medical sciences. William Wood and Co., 1904, Edited by Albert H. Buck.
50. ^ Pu, R; Coleman, J; Coisman, J; Sato, E; Tanabe, T; Arai, M; Yamamoto, JK (2005). "Dual-subtype FIV vaccine (Fel-O-Vax FIV) protection confronting a heterologous subtype B FIV isolate". Periodical of Feline Medicine and Surgery. 7 (one): 65–seventy. doi:x.1016/j.jfms.2004.08.005. PMID 15686976. S2CID 26525327.
51. ^ Dryden, MW; Payne, PA (2005). "Preventing parasites in cats". Veterinarian Therapeutics : Research in Practical Veterinary Medicine. 6 (3): 260–7. PMID 16299672.
52. ^ "Diagnosis in Animals and Humans". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011-09-20. Retrieved 2016-07-31 .
53. ^ Ryder, Richard D. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. Berg Publishers, 2000, p. 54.
54. ^ "Animal Experimentation: A Educatee Guide to Balancing the Problems" Archived 2009-12-18 at WebCite, Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART), retrieved Dec 12, 2007, cites original reference in Maehle, A-H. and Tr6hler, U. 1987. Brute experimentation from antiquity to the end of the eighteenth century: attitudes and arguments. In N. A. Rupke (ed.) Vivisection in Historical Perspective. Croom Helm, London, p. 22
55. ^ The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Book II, fulltextarchive.com.
56. ^ Bowlby, John. Charles Darwin: A New Life, W. Due west. Norton & Company, 1991. p. 420.
57. ^ The Latest Phase of the Vivisection Question, Medical Times and Gazette, Apr 28, 1877, pp. 446–447.
58. ^ ^{a b} The Physiologist at the-aps.org A Physiologist's Views on the Creature Rights/Liberation Movement Archived 2008-05-thirty at the Wayback Car past Charles S. Nicoll The Physiologist 34(6): Dec 1991
59. ^ Buettinger, Craig Antivivisection and the charge of zoophil-psychosis in the early twentieth century. The Historian 1993
60. ^ Costello, John (9 June 2011). "The great zoo's who". Irish Independent.
61. ^ Croce, Pietro. Vivisection or Science? An Investigation into Testing Drugs and Safeguarding Health. Zed Books, 1999, p. 11.
62. ^ Rudacille, Deborah. The Scalpel and the Butterfly: The Conflict, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2000, p. xix.
63. ^ "In sickness and in health: vivisection'due south undoing", The Daily Telegraph, November 2003.
64. ^ Bernard, Claude An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. Offset English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949, p125
65. ^ LaFollette, H., Shanks, N., Animal Experimentation: the Legacy of Claude Bernard, International Studies in the Philosophy of Science (1994) pp. 195-210.
66. ^ Mason, Peter. The Chocolate-brown Dog Affair. Two Sevens Publishing, 1997.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_animal_testing#:~:text=Although%20the%20exact%20purpose%20of,surgeon%20to%20practice%20their%20skills.

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